International Journal of Public Relations

Interests groups access in the EU's portfolio-based governance

2024-12-11T11:40:54+00:00

The European Union emphasizes transparency and accountability as fundamental pillars of democracy, with the European Transparency Register serving as a clear example of the efforts made in this regard. These principles are crucial for preventing corruption, fostering citizen participation, and ensuring effective decision-making, all of which are vital for maintaining public trust in EU institutions. This study explores the meeting patterns between the European Commission and registered interest groups, seeking to establish a relationship between the economic or social nature of the portfolios and the interests represented by the entities they meet with. It hypothesizes a correlation between the economic nature of Commission officials' portfolios and their frequent meetings with interest groups defending material interests. Conversely, officials overseeing social portfolios are expected to meet more frequently with organizations that advocate for immaterial interests. Using a longitudinal analytical-descriptive approach, this study analyzes 24,587 registered meetings from November 2014 to October 2023, covering two legislative terms of the European Union. The results reveal that European Commission officials, regardless of portfolio type, predominantly meet with groups representing material interests, contradicting the expectation that social portfolios engage more with immaterial groups. This underscores the strong influence of economic interests on EU policy.

The integration of generative Artificial Intelligence in Public Relations practices: a systematic review

2024-12-07T10:04:37+00:00

The integration of Generative Artificial Intelligence (IAG) into Public Relations practices is an emerging and still poorly understood topic in both academic and professional fields, although it has sparked controversial positions related to the adoption of this technology and its challenges. This innovation reflects the advances of the contemporary market, which demands greater efficiency, creativity, and competitiveness in communication actions. At the same time, the adoption of IAG raises relevant debates, especially due to the ethical and social challenges involved. The use of IAG in the context of Public Relations represents a significant reconfiguration of traditional practices, requiring a revision of established methodologies that have historically relied on manual processes and direct human interactions. The technology offers the possibility of personalizing and automating content creation, which can increase efficiency and improve message targeting. However, this requires professionals in the field to understand the capabilities and limitations of IAG to avoid creating content that may be misinterpreted or lose connection with audiences.

To contribute to advancing this discussion, this article aims to understand how the integration of IAG in Public Relations practices is presented in recent scientific literature. The study is based on the systematic literature review method in the Scopus, Web of Science, and Scielo databases. It was found that the adoption of IAG contributes to activities such as crisis forecasting, report creation, data analysis, and institutional campaigns, but also imposes challenges related to misinformation, privacy, digital literacy, algorithmic biases, prejudice, superficial relationships, and employability.

Additionally, significant impacts on the job market are observed, including the potential reduction of job positions and the need for the requalification of professionals in the field. Given these challenges, it becomes essential for professionals to employ rigorous analyses to assess risks, opportunities, and scenarios, while adopting a critical and humanized approach that respects ethical principles and social responsibility. This is especially important because technologies do not operate neutrally and can amplify existing inequalities and prejudices. In this context, the continuous training of PR professionals, with an emphasis on new technologies and data ethics, becomes fundamental for them to adequately address the challenges posed by IAG. Another crucial aspect identified is that, although the existing literature provides important foundations for the discussion, it is still in its early stages, particularly regarding empirical investigations that explore practical cases of IAG integration. Furthermore, the lack of specific regulations and clear guidelines for the use of this technology in the field of Public Relations limits the advancement of structured solutions for ethical, social, and technical challenges. In conclusion, the integration of IAG into Public Relations practices presents both opportunities and challenges. The balance between innovation, ethics, and social responsibility is key to ensuring that this technology is adopted in a sustainable and effective way. For future research, it is crucial to explore practical cases and promote debates on regulations that guide the responsible integration of IAG, fostering not only the advancement of the field but also strengthening its relevance in the contemporary social and organizational context.

Digital Communication Strategies for Heritage Conservation: Analysis of Management in the Office of the Cienfuegos Conservator

2024-12-22T13:57:11+00:00

This article investigates the communication strategies employed by the Office of the Conservator of Cienfuegos (OCCC) to promote heritage values and cultural identity through social media and digital platforms. As digital transformation reshapes communication in heritage management, there is an increasing emphasis on understanding how these tools can support the preservation, dissemination, and educational promotion of heritage sites. The study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative interviews with experts and OCCC communication managers, and a quantitative content analysis of the OCCC’s social media activity, primarily focused on Facebook. Through this dual approach, the research offers insights into the effectiveness of current digital strategies, identifies challenges, and provides recommendations for strengthening the OCCC’s impact on its audience.

The study begins by establishing the essential role of communication in heritage management. In Cienfuegos, a city recognized for its historic and cultural significance, the OCCC plays a central role in safeguarding and promoting heritage sites. Communication in this context is not only about sharing information but about building a narrative that reinforces local and national identity. Interviewees expressed a shared understanding of the importance of cohesive communication strategies across all Cuban heritage cities, stressing that a unified approach can enhance national and international visibility. Despite the progress made, interviewees noted persistent gaps, especially in ensuring equal representation across all heritage sites, as some cities receive greater attention due to their historical prominence.

A significant part of the research focuses on the use of social media by the OCCC. The study examines the Facebook profile of the OCCC, assessing both follower engagement and content variety. While the OCCC’s profile has a steady following and generates interactions, the study found that content lacks consistency and depth, suggesting that a more structured social media strategy could improve public engagement. Increasing posting frequency and introducing interactive content that encourages user participation are recommended to foster a more dynamic online presence. Interviewees agree that a digital strategy focused on more interactive and valuable content would contribute to developing a community of engaged followers who can act as cultural ambassadors. Furthermore, the inclusion of analytics tools to track content performance and audience engagement is suggested to guide future strategies more effectively.

The research also underscores the fundamental role of the digital environment in heritage communication. Both experts and OCCC staff agree that digital platforms are essential for engaging local and international audiences with heritage values. The study notes that adapting to these platforms requires a dual focus: on the one hand, promoting cultural tourism to stimulate local economies, and on the other, educating audiences about the intrinsic value of heritage beyond tourism. Experts emphasize that social media should not merely function as a promotional tool but as an educational medium that fosters appreciation for cultural identity. They recommend a balanced approach that avoids the risk of over-commercializing heritage while emphasizing the preservation of authentic cultural and historical narratives.

To further enhance the OCCC’s communication impact, the study suggests diversifying digital communication channels beyond Facebook. Experts propose the inclusion of visual and interactive content on platforms, as well as the use of digital repositories or forums for scholarly discussions and multimedia exhibitions. This diversification would expand the OCCC’s reach and create a more enriching experience for audiences, aligned with the evolving expectations of digital communication. Additionally, interviewees highlight the importance of collaborative networks among heritage institutions, advocating for joint initiatives to enhance the professionalization of heritage communication and share best practices. Such collaboration could optimize resource use and reinforce a unified message that promotes Cuba’s cultural heritage on both regional and national levels.

There is an urgent need to talk about well-being in Higher Education Institutions: What is the role of public relations and organizational communication?

2024-12-11T11:42:18+00:00

Organizational communication has undergone operational changes over time. Unidirectional and sequential models are obsolete and have increasingly been replaced by more symmetrical and bidirectional models. In this sense, it is important to consider all the audiences involved in communication, understanding that message recipients are increasingly active players, and that their feedback is fundamental. On the other hand, the issue of well-being has been on the agenda of many organizations, as the well-being of organizational actors may be related to their motivation, commitment and performance. Despite this, these two topics have been treated individually, disregarding their possible relationship, and there has also been little investment in the context of higher education. In this research study, we sought to understand the extent to which the two themes intersect, fitting them into the context of higher education. We therefore wanted to understand how the communication offices of higher education institutions (HEIs) have acted in relation to the communication of student assistance. To this end, we carried out a qualitative study, operationalized by conducting 8 semi-structured interviews with 8 heads of communication offices from 8 different higher education institutions. We only took public institutions into consideration, as they were the majority of our sample. To complement this data collection, we also analyzed the websites of the 15 Portuguese Public Polytechnic Institutes. Through the analysis of the interviews, we can generally conclude that, although the role of communication offices is central in this field, communication about social action is still very scarce. The analysis of the interviews shows that it is still difficult to establish a “manual of good practices” in terms of communication, and it is also difficult to establish which channel is the most appropriate, depending on the type of audience. The heads of the communication offices also mention a difficulty in personalizing communication and making it more inclusive. By analyzing the websites, we found that although some institutions already have initiatives on the subject, there is still a need for major investment in this area, and there is also a need for a close relationship between the communications offices and the psychology and student support offices. Of the 15 Polytechnic Institutes analyzed, there were still 2 where there was no promotion or initiative on well-being during the first semester of 2024. We can therefore conclude that there is still a way to go in the communication that takes place between Higher Education Institutions - public relations and organizational communication play a fundamental role here, especially in terms of inclusion, welcome and even academic success.

Incidencia pública. El poder en el siglo XXI

2024-12-11T11:41:45+00:00

The first book by the couple Nacho Corredor and Adrián Jofre has just been published: Incidencia pública. El poder en el siglo XXI, published by Arpa. The book begins by affirming the need to overcome the usual disjunctions between the public and the private that respond more to the 20th century than to the 21st century. In our century, the relationship between public and private must be based on collaboration and mutual understanding. Collaboration between the private and public sectors benefits society as a whole, since we must understand them as part of the same equation, instead of generating false and variegated dichotomies that end up being fruitless and not in the general interest. This collaboration, the authors point out, is the only way to generate greater growth, economic and political stability and, above all, credibility (p. 18).

Public Relations in the face of the global challenge of climate change

2024-12-17T17:45:47+00:00

Climate change is increasingly critical, with impacts reflected in recent devastating weather events and biodiversity loss globally (Miller, 2007; Richardson et al., 2023; Edenhofer & Seyboth, 2013; Forster et al., 2023).

In recent years, concern about climate change has been incorporated into the public agenda, both for governments, organizations and society. For this reason, it is essential to involve all sectors of society in taking urgent action, as this is crucial to ensure the future of the planet and the next generations (Tsevreni et al., 2023). Governments worldwide are driving the adoption of new public policies to seek short-term solutions. Organizations have generated sustainable management practices, promoting greater environmental awareness and focusing on compliance with the various regulations and recommendations related to ESG criteria. As for society, there have been greater social movements to raise awareness and mitigate the negative impacts of man-made destruction since we inhabited this planet (Medina & Páramo, 2024).

Think tanks, lobbies and experts as sources in the coverage of climate change in the newspaper El País

2024-10-30T19:31:01+00:00

Public relations have emerged as a key field for managing public perception in the context of combating climate change. They can play a critical role in communicating the causes of the climate crisis, an area traditionally perceived as serving corporate interests. However, the actions of interest groups can not only enhance public understanding and engagement but also foster a proactive approach to climate challenges.

Among their strategies to gain influence in public decision-making, interest groups offer themselves as sources to the media. The main objective of this study is to characterize the presence of interest groups as journalistic sources in climate change coverage in the Spanish newspaper El País, compared to other sources such as politicians, scientists, and activists. The hypothesis proposed is that interest groups have a greater presence than ecological activism in climate change coverage. Regarding interest groups, distinctions are made between think tanks, lobbies, and independent experts, considering the specific climate change topic in which they focus their strategic action and their spatial scope of influence.

The results show that interest groups constitute the primary source type for journalists covering climate change, following political, governmental, and institutional sources, representing 29,3% of the 300 sources observed. The total of interest groups—which includes lobbies, think tanks, and experts—reaches a significant 27,9%. Within this percentage, lobbies stand out at 15.3%, above experts (7,7%) and think tanks (5%). Science is represented in 13.7% of the climate change pieces, above NGOs and activism, which together account for 10.7%. The prominent presence of interest groups is also notable in the international context, especially in Latin America, given El País’s ‘America’ edition, which provides coverage in countries such as Mexico, Colombia, Chile, and Argentina. The analysis of the spatial context of the journalistic pieces shows that nearly half of the analyzed news items have an international focus, followed by coverage of topics in Latin America and the Caribbean. Together, these account for almost eighty percent of the analyzed sample.

The predominance of interest groups over ecological activism as actors in the climate narrative reflects various factors, most notably the former's capacity to professionalize their communication and develop persuasive strategies that facilitate their inclusion in the media as legitimate and authoritative sources. In contrast, ecological activism faces more challenges in accessing the media and establishing itself as a recurring source. This situation has significant implications for the plurality of voices in the climate change debate. Prioritizing the arguments promoted by think tanks and lobbies can create a bias in the coverage toward certain types of solutions, limiting other alternative interpretations that emphasize the structural causes of the climate crisis to propose alternative solutions. In fact, appearances of pieces focusing on the causes of climate change featuring interest groups are minimal in the analyzed sample, compared to those centered on impacts or solutions: half of the pieces in which think tanks, lobbies, or experts appear are linked to economic or technological solutions to the climate crisis. The causes of climate change, with only 1.8% of the coverage, are notably underrepresented.

The narrative construction of risk in Petrobras’ sustainability reports

2024-10-30T19:40:22+00:00

This article examines the problem of risk, with a focus on environmental and climate issues in the context of late modernity. It focuses on how organisations, especially in the oil sector, address environmental controversies through communication strategies and legitimation narratives, emphasising sustainability to reinforce their social commitment. The study focuses on the Brazilian oil company Petrobras, known for its environmental impact and controversies, especially leaks and accidents. The article explores how Petrobras officially communicates about environmental risks, using sustainability reports as a legitimisation strategy in relation to ESG (Environment, Social and Governance) standards. The methodology adopted is reflexive and critical, based on an analysis of Petrobras' sustainability reports over the last ten years (2012-2022).

Petrobras was founded in Brazil in 1953, its origins date back to the search for economic independence in the energy sector and, during its almost sixty years of existence, the organization has gained international recognition in the oil and derivatives sector (Santos, 2021), but has also been at the center of several controversies, especially for the numerous leaks, disasters and environmental accidents (Santos et al., 2012). In this context, ESG (Environment, Social and Governance) highlights the importance of environmental, social and governance factors in financial markets throughout the global sphere. ESG rankings are also known as sustainability rankings or corporate social responsibility ratings. In this regard, the relevance of ESG reports has increased in recent years as they are linked to practices that strengthen sustainable economic development. However, organizations with simpler business models and proportionally lower impacts can measure a small number of relevant factors in terms of socio-environmental risks and opportunities. As the complexity of the business increases, the metric used should become more sophisticated to ensure that the measurement is as close as possible to the real impact.

Those with a higher risk in relation to biodiversity loss, for example, are configured as a higher market risk, have lower liquidity in their shares and have an impact on financial institutions, causing instability in a country’s economy and financial system if its governance is “weak” (Jacobi, 2012). These organizations must seek tools to combat biodiversity loss by mapping risks and for this, they require strategic organizational communication (Kunsch, 2016). In this sense, we are interested here in observing the approach to environmental risk officially communicated by Petrobras, since the oil sector corresponds to one of the segments with the highest rates of environmental pollution / contamination and the way in which these organizations build their reports on their practices in favor of sustainable development becomes, nowadays, important strategies of social legitimation focused on ESG standards. To do this, the methodology adopts a reflexive and critical perspective, based on bibliographic and documentary research, whose analytical corpus focuses on Petrobras' sustainability reports of the last ten years. Our research objective being "to analyze the official construction of the organizational narrative (Santos, 2022) on the approach to environmental risk by the Brazilian company.

From the preliminary analysis of Petrobras' sustainability reports, from 2012 to 2022, we observe an approach that tends to "naturalize" and "relativize" the risk and to emphasize, above all, the measures taken by the organization to "control" it.

Environmental Branded Podcasts.

2024-10-30T16:20:58+00:00

This study examines branded environmental podcasts as a strategic communication tool for Social Responsibility (SR) in response to the growing concern over the ecological crisis. These podcasts enable organisations to align with societal concerns about socio-environmental challenges while establishing a more authentic connection with their audiences. Through an exploratory and descriptive approach, the research employs an in-depth interview and a mixed content analysis of 88 Spanish-language podcasts hosted on Spotify. The findings reveal that companies, NGOs, and universities are the primary producers of these podcasts, with a notable surge in their creation between 2020 and 2023, particularly following the COVID-19 pandemic. Among the producing countries, Spain, Colombia, and Mexico emerge as leaders in the development of branded environmental podcasts. Key topics addressed in these productions include climate crisis, sustainable resource management, and renewable solutions, reflecting the pressing environmental issues of our time. The analysis identifies a correlation between the type of organisation and the podcast’s recent activity, showing that companies and universities tend to maintain their podcasts more actively compared to public organisations or think tanks. Furthermore, podcasts referenced on the organisation’s official website are more likely to remain active, indicating that their integration into broader organisational communication strategies contributes to their longevity. This demonstrates that when podcasts are embedded within a cohesive communication framework, they not only sustain activity but also enhance the organisation’s ability to convey consistent messaging. Branded environmental podcasts offer several advantages. They strengthen organisational reputation, foster the creation of engaged communities, and demand fewer technical resources compared to other media formats. However, they also face significant challenges. One major obstacle is their niche focus, which can limit their ability to attract large audiences. Another is the risk of being perceived as engaging in greenwashing if the podcast’s content is not aligned with the organisation’s actual practices. This inconsistency can undermine credibility, particularly in an era when stakeholders demand greater transparency and accountability. Additionally, the increasing use of artificial intelligence (AI) in podcast production presents a new challenge. While AI can enhance technical quality and streamline processes, it may also raise concerns among audiences about the authenticity of content, particularly regarding the use of AI-generated voices or scripts. This could detract from the personal and relatable nature that makes podcasts a unique medium for communication. In conclusion, branded environmental podcasts represent a valuable yet underexplored tool for organisations seeking to address socio-environmental concerns and engage meaningfully with their stakeholders. To maximise their impact, these podcasts must be integrated into comprehensive communication strategies, ensuring coherence with organisational values and practices. By doing so, they can overcome challenges, enhance trust, and position organisations as credible advocates for environmental sustainability in an increasingly eco-conscious world. This work has been funded by the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities.

Social responsibility of designer fashion brands in Spain

2024-12-07T09:28:45+00:00

The fashion industry is the second most polluting sector globally, drawing significant attention from environmentalists, politicians, investors, and consumers. The industry accounts for nearly 8% of global carbon emissions and 20% of worldwide wastewater, positioning it as a key target for environmental scrutiny. As sustainable development advances across various industries and consumer awareness increases, the focus on sustainability in decision-making has become imperative. Incorporating corporate social responsibility (CSR) and sustainability into the communication strategies of fashion brands is essential for addressing reputational risks and demonstrating genuine commitment, especially considering concepts such as triple bottom line. While fast, low-cost production dominates the fashion business, new alternatives that prioritize human and environmental resources are gaining prominence. Designer fashion stands as a compelling example, with its emphasis on handmade, local production, and a commitment to quality and durability, offering an effective association with sustainability. However, the sustainability communication strategies of designer fashion brands remain underexplored. Given the trend of greenhushing, where brands conceal sustainability efforts to avoid reputational risks, websites offer an effective tool for engaging stakeholders, promoting transparency, and building legitimacy. This study aims to: (1) analyze the sustainability communication strategies of designer fashion brands in Spain through their corporate websites and (2) assess Spanish designers’ perceptions of corporate social responsibility in their business processes. A content analysis of 41 designer fashion brand websites that participated in Madrid Fashion Week (September 2022 and February 2023) revealed that 68% of brands communicate sustainability, although only 3.57% do so prominently on their homepage. Most brands (90%) use one to two pages to convey this information, primarily in textual form (only 25% include multimedia content). Brands addressing sustainability were further investigated through five semi-structured interviews, focusing on creative processes, production methods, communication tools, and the importance of sustainability-related concepts. While brands reported challenges, such as the scarcity of sustainable fabric suppliers and the higher cost of raw materials impacting final product prices, they remain committed to sustainability. However, they emphasized that true change lies with consumers: reducing consumption and investing in higher-quality, longer-lasting products is crucial. Education on sustainability was considered vital, and the designers agreed on the need for digital communication to play a key role in this effort. By fostering transparency, these brands aim to combat greenwashing – the misrepresentation of sustainability claims – and position themselves as leaders in sustainable fashion. In terms of practical implications, brands are encouraged to adopt transparent communication practices in compliance with European directives against greenwashing. Failure to do so can lead to a loss of consumer trust. Brands should develop clear strategies that leverage sustainability as a competitive advantage. Future research should focus on studies related to social media, given the significant importance brands place on this tool. Additionally, research on consumer perceptions and the role of Marketing 3.0 is crucial, as it explores issues concerning the accessibility and appeal of communication from the consumer’s perspective. This research is limited by the fact that sustainability is not yet a decisive factor in consumer purchasing decisions, meaning that the fashion sector is not significantly penalized by consumers when they alter their practices.

Sustainability in the organisation and production of events: state of the art

2024-10-30T19:48:12+00:00

Sustainability is currently considered one of the main challenges for professionals of event organization and production. The central objective of the research was to establish a state of the art regarding this object of study, through an exhaustive review of scientific and institutional literature published on sustainability in the organization and production of events. It also approaches it through the analysis of related concepts, such as corporate social responsibility; of various perspectives; and trends of study.

This paper seeks to provide a solid theoretical framework that can be used by academics and practitioners to guide future research and practice in this field. By exploring and synthesising knowledge in this field, we will provide a solid basis for the sector to approach the issue and make decisions in an industry with such an impact. Rather than a trend, sustainability should be seen as a necessity to ensure the viability of the sector and the well-being of society.

The structure of the paper includes a review of the authors' different approaches and perspectives on the definition of sustainable events, the characteristics of sustainable events and related concepts, such as corporate social responsibility, smart cities and the Sustainable Development Goals. These concepts have been pointed out by several authors as fundamental to integrate sustainability in the events industry.

It also addresses the impacts of events beyond the environmental aspects to which the concept of ‘sustainable event’ has often been confined. By broadening the definition of sustainability, we provide a more complete vision for any professional or researcher considering this study of the issue.

Furthermore, in this paper we analyse studies of different types of events and their relationship with sustainability, which includes sporting, cultural and commercial events. Each type of event and its relationship with sustainability has been studied by different authors involving different types of theoretical and practical approaches.

In this study we appreciate the development of the areas of study interest and trends in recent years regarding sustainability in the event industry. In this way, we see what trends we find today and what possible developments may occur in the future.

In the same way, with this project we seek to contribute to moving towards a more environmentally responsible professional model, encouraging the adoption of sustainable practices that reduce negative impacts and maximise the positive benefits of events. In itself, any professional must address sustainability due to the current context of climate crisis and social model that we face in society in general, however, in the events industry it becomes more pressing due to the negative impacts generated by events and which are addressed in this research.

The research concludes:

There is a lack of definition of the concept of sustainable event that is motivated, in part, by the open debate regarding what sustainability entails, however, the existence of international regulations, such as ISO 20121, for certification of management of a sustainable event, It is crucial as a reference in the study of events.
It is necessary to go beyond the environmental sphere and take into account, at least, the social and economic sphere, as well as to have an integrative perspective of sustainability in the industry, instead of limiting it to a type of event or specific actions, in order to avoid falling into greenwashing.
The study of sustainability in events is an area of development in scientific literature that must go beyond bibliographic analyzes or reduced study samples.

Following this state of affairs, therefore, we consider that the adoption of comprehensive and multidisciplinary prisms in the events industry in terms of sustainability is inexcusable. This adoption allows us to transcend specific actions in the environmental field and develop skills in areas such as corporate social responsibility, as well as international regulations, agreed upon by experts and applied to all phases of the organization and production of events. In this way, we will be closer to achieving a more responsible events industry both in the present and for future generations.

Public Relations and Startups in Andalusia

2024-12-11T18:15:36+00:00

Effective PR management is considered essential in the first years of a startup's life, as it contributes to its viability and sustainability through strategic communication planning. The overall objective of this study is to analyze the startup landscape in Andalusia, Spain, with a special focus on the Public Relations (PR) strategies of women-led companies. Secondary objectives include: 1) To identify trends in female entrepreneurship in Andalusia and their relationship with PR; 2) To analyze the professional profile of women in PR roles in Andalusian startups; and 3) To propose communication strategies aimed at attracting clients and investors. The methodology combines a systematic literature review and a bibliometric analysis with data from Web of Science and VOSviewer, together with a questionnaire applied to 31 Andalusian startups. This approach allowed to analyse patterns in PR management and female representation. The findings show an increase in citations of articles on female entrepreneurship, highlighting the provinces of Malaga and Seville, which account for 61% of entrepreneurial initiatives in the region. Improving policies in these areas could boost businesses performance and the growth of new companies. In addition, the results reveal a growth in female leadership, although it still faces challenges, such as under-representation in senior positions. Key strategies include the use of social media, educational content and collaborations with influencers, which are essential to improve visibility and attract investors. This study highlights the need to strengthen PR in startups, professionalise its management and promote female leadership to foster sustainability and competitiveness in a dynamic environment.